Romulus stood on the Palatine Hill, his eyes scanning the skies above. Not far away, on another hill named Aventine, Romulus’ twin brother, Remus, was also looking skyward. Each wanted to establish a great city on the Italian peninsula, but they could not agree on where it should be built. So they watched and waited for a sign that would reveal which brother would become the founder of the new city. Tradition says that Rome was founded in 753 B.C. But to learn the full legend of Romulus and Remus, we must go back to the end of the Trojan War.
When the Greeks captured the city of Troy (according to many scholars, sometime around 1184 B.C.), a Trojan warrior named Aeneas escaped and, with a small band of soldiers, wandered throughout the Mediterranean Sea region, finally settling on the coast of Italy. Aeneas’ son founded a city named Alba Longa, and for approximately four hundred years a long line of kings reigned. Eventually, rule of Alba Longa fell to a king named Numitor. Although Numitor was the rightful ruler, his younger brother Amulius took the throne by force. To assure that Numitor would have no descendants who could challenge him, Amulius forced Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a vestal virgin. Such women were dedicated to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, and were not allowed to bear children.

Rhea, however, had twin boys, claiming the god of war, Mars, as their father. The twins were named Romulus and Remus, and were “of more than human size and beauty,” according to the Greek biographer Plutarch (born before A.D. 50 and died after A.D. 120). When Amulius learned of their birth, he was furious and ordered them killed. A servant placed the infants in a basket and set it adrift on the Tiber River, where the boys would die of exposure. Instead, the basket ran aground in shallow water. The hungry cries of the babies attracted a female wolf, who nursed Romulus and Remus and kept them alive. A shepherd named Faustulus soon found the twins and, with his wife, raised the boys in secret. As young men, Romulus and Remus had a wild streak, hunting dangerous animals and ambushing robbers in order to share the thieves’ loot with their fellow shepherds. One day, during a quarrel between Amulius and Numitor’s herdsmen, Remus was captured and charged with stealing cattle belonging to Numitor. Amulius decided to turn Remus over to Numitor for punishment. In talking with the young man, Numitor realized that Remus was one of his long-lost grandsons. The two began to plot to overthrow Amulius.

Meanwhile, Romulus was making his own plans to rescue his brother. Gathering together a small force, Romulus invaded King Amulius’ palace, while Remus attacked from within. Amulius was slain, and the throne was returned to its rightful owner, Numitor. Romulus and Remus had helped restore their grandfather’s kingdom, but now they grew restless. They longed to build their own city at the place by the Tiber where their basket had run aground. But the brothers disagreed on the exact location. Romulus chose a hill called Palatine as the site, while Remus selected the Aventine. Ordinarily, the wishes of an older brother would take priority over a younger one, but, since Romulus and Remus were twins, another way had to be found. In ancient times, augury was the “science” of receiving signs or omens from the gods by observing natural phenomena such as lightning or the behavior of birds and animals. Priests called augurs were charged with interpreting such divine messages.

Romulus and Remus decided to choose the location of their city by watching for a flock of birds. Each brother stood on a selected hilltop and Remus was the first to see an omen: six vultures flew over his hill. Remus and his followers rejoiced at this sign, which they said qualified him as king. Then word came that Romulus had seen a flight of twelve vultures. The brothers argued about the omens. Remus said his was the right one because he had seen it first. Romulus proclaimed his omen best because he had observed more vultures. During the quarrel, Remus taunted Romulus by jumping over the boundary of his proposed city. Enraged, Romulus struck and killed his brother, angrily shouting, “Any other who leaps over my walls shall have the same!”

After burying his brother, Romulus began building the city that would bear the name Rome, after its first king. Tradition gives the date as April 21, 753 B.C., a day the Romans celebrated much as we celebrate the Fourth of July. As for Romulus, he lived a long life and one day disappeared in a thunderstorm, after which the Romans associated him with their god of war, Quirinus. It is, perhaps, a fitting end for the legendary founder of the eternal city called Rome.



Rome was founded around 625 BC in the areas of ancient Italy known as Etruria and Latium. It is thought that the city-state of Rome was initially formed by Latium villagers joining together with settlers from the surrounding hills in response to an Etruscan invasion. It is unclear whether they came together in defense or as a result of being brought under Etruscan rule. Archaeological evidence indicates that a great deal of change and unification took place around 600 BC which likely led to the establishment of Rome as a true city

The first period in Roman history is known as the Period of Kings, and it lasted from Rome’s founding until 510 BC. During this brief time Rome, led by no fewer than six kings, advanced both militaristically and economically with increases in physical boundaries, military might, and production and trade of goods including oil lamps. Politically, this period saw the early formation of the Roman constitution. The end of the Period of Kings came with the decline of Etruscan power, thus ushering in Rome’s Republican Period.

Rome entered its Republican Period in 510 BC. No longer ruled by kings, the Romans established a new form of government whereby the upper classes ruled, namely the senators and the equestrians, or knights. However, a dictator could be nominated in times of crisis. In 451 BC, the Romans established the “Twelve Tables,” a standardized code of laws meant for public, private, and political matters. Rome continued to expand through the Republican Period and gained control over the entire Italian peninsula by 338 BC. It was the Punic Wars from 264-146 BC, along with some conflicts with Greece, that allowed Rome to take control of Carthage and Corinth and thus become the dominant maritime power in the Mediterranean. Soon after, Rome’s political atmosphere pushed the Republic into a period of chaos and civil war. This led to the election of a dictator, L. Cornelius Sulla, who served from 82-80 BC. Following Sulla’s resignation in 79 BC, the Republic returned to a state of unrest. While Rome continued to be governed as a Republic for another 50 years, the shift to Imperialism began to materialize in 60 BC when Julius Caesar rose to power. By 51 BC, Julius Caesar had conquered Celtic Gaul and, for the first time, Rome’s borders had spread beyond the Mediterranean region. Although the Senate was still Rome’s governing body, its power was weakening. Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC and replaced by his heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian) who ruled alongside Mark Antony. In 31 BC Rome overtook Egypt which resulted in the death of Mark Antony and left Octavian as the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Octavian assumed the title of Augustus and thus became the first emperor of Rome.

Rome’s Imperial Period was its last, beginning with the rise of Rome’s first emperor in 31 BC and lasting until the fall of Rome in AD 476. During this period, Rome saw several decades of peace, prosperity, and expansion. By AD 117, the Roman Empire had reached its maximum extant, spanning three continents including Asia Minor, northern Africa, and most of Europe. In AD 286 the Roman Empire was split into eastern and western empires, each ruled by its own emperor. The western empire suffered several Gothic invasions and, in AD 455, was sacked by Vandals. Rome continued to decline after that until AD 476 when the western Roman Empire came to an end. The eastern Roman Empire, more commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, survived until the 15th century AD. It fell when Turks took control of its capital city, Constantinople (modern day Istanbul in Turkey) in AD 1453.



Etruscan rule left its mark on early Roman art. Many of the remaining paintings from this era are located in tombs, such as those found at Tarquinia. One painting from this complex, found in the Tomb of the Leopards, portrays an Etruscan banquet scene and dates from 400’s BC. On the main panel, servants are shown bringing food and wine while musicians provide entertainment. On the top panel, leopards are depicted in between bits of greenery. Both people and animals are painted primarily in profile. The cheerful tone of this painting reflects the realities of everyday life, a common theme in Etruscan art. The Etruscan monarchy ended with the establishment of a Republican government in 509 BC. Most of the paintings from this era come from ancient villas where the most affluent Romans lived. Art scholars have classified these paintings as indicative of four distinct styles. The First Style demonstrates how Roman painters mimicked certain kinds of stone, like marble. Paintings in the Second Style show entire scenes on the wall, drawing the observer into another world. Oftentimes, the subjects of Second Style paintings are scenes from mythical stories. Third Style paintings show a single miniature mythical scene floating in a void of one color and framed by an architectural structure, such as columns connected by canopies. The Fourth Style is a combination of the first three. Wall paintings in the Ixion Room in the House of the Vettii in Pompeii date back to 70 AD. These paintings demonstrate how the elements of the first three styles were used to create the Fourth Style. The top and center panels show the architectural scenes of buildings with Greek and Roman design characteristic of the Second Style. The center panels also include the Third Style painting that has one color for a background and a small scene floating in the middle, framed by a dainty border. On the very bottom, the panels are made in the First Style, painted to appear like the marble seen in Greek and Etruscan palaces. The fusion of the three styles highlights the multiculturalism inherent in Roman society. Portraiture was another form of painting in ancient Rome. In the province of Egypt, the old masks that once adorned mummies and gave identity to the dead were replaced with Roman style portraits displaying realistic faces with large round eyes. A portrait painting of Septimius Severus and his immediate family, painted on wood with tempra paint, is the only currently existing depiction of an emperor. The work came from Faiyum, Egypt in the third century AD. The royal family is shown wearing their fine jeweled crowns. Each person has a hint of a smile, and his or her eyes are typically large and round. Septimius Severus’ eyes are the most distinct and lifelike in the painting. The face of the eldest son, Geta, was scratched off, most likely ordered by his younger brother, Caracalla, who succeeded Geta. Paintings with Christian subjects also exist from the latter half of the imperial period of Roman history. During the time when Christianity was outlawed, many Christians were driven to the catacombs under Roman streets where the dead were kept. One painting on the ceiling of Saints Peter anduse of symbolism in Christian artwork. The ceiling painting is octagonal shaped, with eight scenes that tell the story of the Bible character, Jonah. Christ is depicted in the center of the octagon because early Christians viewed Jonah as a precursor to Jesus Christ. This and other paintings found in the catacombs do not demonstrate masterful art because there was very little light by which to see and artists had to endure the stench of dead bodies as they painted

The early Romans and Etruscans did not use the medium of mosaic, but there are examples of Republican mosaics found in Roman homes. In the House of Neptune and Amphrititie (c. 62 AD) in Herculaneum, a wall mosaic was made in the same form as that of the Second and Third Style wall paintings from the same era. This mosaic depicts two statue-like versions of Neptune and his wife, Amphrititie, standing against a white background. They are surrounded by an architectural frame and laid on a background of blue, to represent the sea. Imperial Rome also made use of mosaics. One example of a floor mosaic was found in the Baths of Neptune (C.140 AD) in Ostia. The sea god is portrayed riding a horse-drawn chariot. The god is surrounded by figures of men and sea creatures swimming about. The figures are black, and thus stood out against the white background. This work is reminiscent of Greek vases. The early Roman Christians made many mosaics with the general purpose of teaching the observer about their beliefs and stories. A mosaic found in the mausoleum of Julii in Rome, constructed in the late 200s AD, portrays Christ as Sol Invictus (Invincible Sun), a god known to the Greeks as Helios. Christ is shown driving the sun chariot and a halo surrounds his head like rays of sunlight. Vines of green leaves surround him. This example depicts the manner in which Christian artists overlapped symbolism from the prevailing pagan cultures to establish the character of Christ. Another depiction of Christ in a mosaic form can be found in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. Made in c. 325 BC, it was found at the entrance of the mausoleum. Christ is shown in a pastoral scene as a shepherd, much like the figures found in the catacomb painting from Rome. However, changes were made to represent some of Christ’s attributes. Instead of being shown as a poor shepherd, he wears royal colors of purple and gold. He is holding a cross instead of a shepherd’s crook and has a halo around his head. A group of three sheep sit on either side of him.

Statuary and relief sculptures from ancient Rome have survived through the ages more intact than most paintings. Roman sculpture made use of a variety of materials such as concrete, marble, and bronze. and even scenes from everyday life. Roman stone work was influenced heavily by Greek art, which was detailed and free flowing in character. However, Roman statuary generally looked more rigid than its Greek counterpart. Etruscan statuary and sculpture was another basis for Roman sculpture. A sarcophagus found at the necropolis at Cerveteri demonstrates typical Etruscan stone work. The terra cotta sarcophagus is shaped like a banqueting couch, and the lid includes a depiction of a husband and wife reclining. Another famous example of Etruscan or early Roman art is the bronze statue of the Capitoline Wolf nursing two small infants. It portrays the beginning of the story of the foundation of Rome. The two babies, Romulus and Remus, were orphaned and raised by a she-wolf. They eventually established the city of Rome. Some mistake it as Republican art because the mythical characters became the rallying symbol of the new Republic after the Etruscan kings were forced from leadershi p in Rome.. Imperial statuary followed a realistic style also. A statue depicting the general Augustus as a general, made c. 20 BC and found in the villa of his wife Livia, demonstrates the similarity between Republican and Imperial art. Augustus’ life-like face suggests strength, as does his muscular body and military attire. His hand is raised as though he were addressing his soldiers with authority. At one foot of the statue is a depiction of a small Cupid, referring to the claim of the Claudian family that they could trace their ancestry back to the goddess, Venus. The statue of Augustus served as political propaganda for the upper classes of Rome. It was intended to impress those who saw it, stressing the emperor’s power. Some scholars believe that it may have been constructed after his death and that it worked to uphold the memory of his achievements. The arch of Titus was built after 81 AD and memorialized the emperor Titus in the relief sculptures found on its sides. The scenes on the arch also encourage belief in the power of the emperor’s military prowess. One relief, called the Spoils of Jerusalem, depicts the Roman soldiers taking treasures out of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Before becoming emperor, Titus worked to quiet the Jewish uprisings in the Middle East. He destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem when his armies took the city in 70 AD. The relief sculpture depicts the soldiers carrying their looted treasures, such as a gold menorah. All of the relief sculptures on the arch show numerous soldiers on the move. The sun casts shadows on the relief, making the work appear more vibrant and realistic. Another imperial statue, found on an outside corner of San Marco in Venice, exemplifies a new philosophy in Roman leadershi p. The statue depicts the tetrarchy formed by Diocletian to help administer the large empire. The statue was made of porphyry (purple marble) around 300 AD. It shows four rulers of the Roman Empire huddled together in two pairs. Each individual reaches an opposite arm to clutch the shoulder of his companion, indicating that the rulers relied on one another. All four are clutching a sword handle with their free hand. The faces of the statues lack the certainty and confidence of past statues of leaders nor do they display any emotion. The entire composition seems stiff and conveys a feeling of anxiety. In the latter Imperial period, a statue of Constantine, the emperor who made Christianity legal, indicates a shift from the tension of the tetrarchy. The colossus statue of the enthroned emperor was constructed in 315 AD and stood 30 feet high in the Basilica Nova in Rome. The huge head of ConstantineW stands eight and a half feet high and has a strong face with characteristically large eyes that display a knowing and wise expression. The entire composition was intended to remind an ancient observer of the god Jupiter. In one hand, Constantine held an orb, a symbol of worldly power. In the other, he held a Christian cross. This statue’s purpose was to show his absolute authority and was part of his hero worship. It encouraged confidence in the emperor during this time of constant barbarian invasion at the borders and the conversion to a new religion.

Roman coins were hand-made using a variety of metals. The type of metal used and its weight determined the value of a coin. Emperors ordered their silhouettes placed onto coins along with their names and titles in abbreviated form. Mythical beings would most often appear on the backs of coins to represent an event or a battle. Both the titles and events represented in short form were a tool of propaganda for emperors. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar became the first emperor to have his likeness immortalized on a coin. On one coin from the era, Julius Caesar’s silhouette shows his receding hairline, a symbol of wisdom during the Republic. On the back of the coin, he demonstrates his military power with a picture of the goddess Venus in her military role. One coin minted from Augustus’ reign symbolizes his strength. This denarius from 19 BC shows a Parthian soldier kneeling. In his raised hand is a Roman standard, which is a symbol used by the Roman Army. This picture symbolizes Augustus’ success in negotiating the return of Roman military standards, as well as obtaining land that the Parthians had recently won. An aureus dating from c.64 AD, minted during Nero’s rule, conveys a different message. It was minted soon after the military tried to kill the emperor and replace him with Piso. Nero learned of the conspiracy before it could be carried out. His portrait is shown on the front side of the coin. This realistic picture of the emperor does not conceal his weight, showing his large neck and fat face. On the other side of the coin is Jupiter, whom Nero believed was a sort of patron god and protector.



At its peak in 117 CE, the Roman Empire covered some 2.3 million square miles (5.9 million square kilometers) over three continents, Africa, Asia, and Europe. It is estimated that perhaps 60 million people lived within its borders. It was one of the largest and most powerful empires in the ancient world. However the empire could not maintain this size. Within a few decades of Emperor Trajan’s death in 117 CD, Mesopotamia was lost to the Parthians of ancient Iran. The Romans would never again hold Mesopotamia.In Europe, the long border through heavily wooded Germania proved too expensive to defend, forcing the Empire to concede land to German tribes and pull back to the Rhone and Danube Rivers. When Diocletian became the Roman Emperor in 284 CE, he inherited an empire on the verge of collapse. He was preceded by several weak rulers who rose too quickly and were often assassinated. International trade networks were failing and the vast, connected world of the Roman Empire almost disappeared. When Diocletian took charge, he brought about a series of changes to save his empire. Most of these changes would not last long past his death, but he did bring about some muchneeded stability. In the West, the empire would limp forward for another century and a half, while in the East, it would reign for over a millennium. Diocletian created the tetrarchy which divided the empire between four rulers: two senior emperors and two junior ones. Together they would rule the vast empire. Yet soon after his death in 311 CE, the rulers were back to fighting each other for control. Constantine the Great (ruled 306–337 CE) would emerge as the victor. Under Constantine, Christianity became legal and eventually the dominant religion. The new capital city Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) was created as if it were the New Rome. This was in the eastern part of the empire, which was much wealthier and more stable. Things went downhill for the next 140 years, especially over in the west. Power was often in the hands of child emperors, who were guided by generals. The economy was in shambles as international trade dramatically declined. The Vandals under their king Gaiseric (389–477 CE) took over North Africa and cut off the Western Roman Empire from its main source of grain. Within the empire, markets became more localized. This made it a lot harder for the government to collect the taxes it needed for its vast armies. Throughout Europe, Germanic tribes began to push into the empire, often driven there by the hope for safety and security against forces such as Attila the Hun. In the West, these forces became too strong to resist. Then in 476 CE the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed at the age of 16.

In 212 CE, the emperor Caracalla published the Antonine Constitution. It gave citizenshi p to all free men within the borders of the Roman Empire, no matter how far from Rome they lived. The idea of Roman identity, or romanitas was pushed hard through education and government. Everyone who lived on the other side of the borders were non-Romans, looked down on as barbarians. This sense of social superiority was most evident in how the Romans dealt with the Germanic tribes. In 350 CE, German groups were trying to migrate into the Roman Empire, but while the Romans would use them as troops, these Germans had little chance of being accepted as “Roman.” But Germans would soon prove you didn’t have to be Roman to learn the romanitas way. In 375 CE, the emperor Valentinian I met with German tribal leaders from the Quadi. The Quadi had previously attacked Roman forces that had crossed the Danube River. They explained to the emperor that this was because he had set up military camps along the river in their territory, creating a barrier against them. He was so insulted by the blame that they placed on him for their actions that he “burst into a mighty fit of wrath,” suffered an aneurysm and died. Three years later, in 378 CE, a confederation (group) of German tribes defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in the Balkan Peninsula and killed the emperor Valens. This battle was the result of a series of abuses suffered by Germans at the hands of Roman officials. The confederation was then united as the Visigoths under its first king, Alaric. Alaric and his subjects were repeatedly denied safe refuge or recognition as citizens, simply because they were Germans. Alaric and the Visigoths fought back by sacking Rome in 410 CE. When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, it was replaced by a series of kingdoms ruled over by the very Germans that the Romans so despised. Yet, even as Rome fell, it spread its romanitas to the Germanic tribes. There is no small irony in how the Germanic kingdoms that arose in Western Europe after 476 CE, as well as the increasingly powerful Catholic Church, were modelled after the Roman Empire. In that sense, Roman traditions continued long after Rome’s fall.

In 1984 A. Demandt published a list of 210 reasons historians have given for the fall of the Roman Empire. The list points to everything from taxes to hypothermia to public baths, but most likely there were many causes. Internally the empire was failing economically. It had lost its tax base and long distance-trade was cut off. The people of the Western Roman Empire became disconnected from the emperor, living in small, localized, selfsufficient communities that couldno longer rely upon their emperor to care for and protect them. Externally, outsiders like those Germanic tribes were crossing into the empire in ever larger numbers. Many probably just wanted to join Rome, not invade or destroy it, but the Romans continued to despise them. Beyond asking why it fell, it’s important to ask what the fall of Rome meant to historians. Some see it as catastrophic. Looking at the ruins of Rome these historians see the fall of Rome as the violent and bloody end of a civilization, pushing Europe into a Dark Age that was primitive and barbaric compared to earlier life under the Roman Empire. Others look at the fall of Rome as a period transition. While the central authority of the Western Roman Emperor disappeared in 476 CE, Roman institutions, from the Catholic Church to Roman law, continued in the Germanic kingdoms that came afterwards. The Eastern Roman Empire survived this difficult period and continued on as the Byzantine Empire until its fall in 1453 to the Ottomans. It survived where the West did not for a variety of reasons, most notably its society was more cohesive, its tax base was stronger, and its location provided it with somewhat better protection against Germanic incursions.